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HENRY HALLEY’S
POCKET BIBLE HANDBOOK
CHURCH HISTORY 1-5
CHURCH HISTORY
1
The Bible Contains the Story of Christ
The Church exists to Tell the Story of Christ
Church History is a Continuation of Bible History
To show Our Connection with the Bible Story, and believing that Church people ought to be familiar with at least the elementary Facts of Church History, we give here a Brief Outline of its main Features, Events and Persons. It is impossible to understand the present condition of Christendom except in the light of History. Ignorance of Church History is more widespread even than ignorance of the Bible. One of the chief duties of ministers is to teach their people the facts of Church History.
World History is usually thought of in Three Periods:
ANCIENT: Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome.
MEDIEVAL: From Fall of Rome to Discovery of America. MODERN: From 15th Century to Present Time.
Church History is usually thought of in Three Periods:
ROMAN EMPIRE PERIOD: Period of Persecutions, Martyrs, the Church Fathers, Controversies, Christianization of the Roman Empire.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD: Period of the Growth and Power of the Papacy, the Inquisition, Monasticism, Mohammedanism, and the Crusades.
MODERN PERIOD: Period of the Protestant Reformation, Great Growth of the Protestant Church, Wide Circulation of the Open Bible, Growing Freedom of Civil Governments from Church and Priestly control, World-Wide Missions, Social Reform, and Growing Brotherhood.
The Great Events of the Christian Era are:
1. The Christianization of the Roman Empire.
2. The Barbarian Invasion, Blending Roman and German Civilizations.
3. The Struggle with Mohammedanism.
4. The Rise and Rule of the Papacy.
5. The Protestant Reformation.
6. The Modern World-Wide Missionary Movement.
The Three Great Divisions of Christendom are:
PROTESTANT, prevailing in W Europe and N America.
ROMAN CATHOLIC, prevailing in S Europe and S America.
GREEK CATHOLIC, prevailing in E and SE Europe.
These are the result of Two Great Cleavages of the Church: One, in the 9th century, when the East separated itself from the West because of the Pope's insistence that he was LORD of the Whole Church. The Other, in the 16th century, over the same cause, under the leadership of Martin Luther, greatest man of modern history.
Harnack says, "The Greek Church is Primitive Christianity plus Greek and Oriental Paganism.
The Roman Catholic Church is Primitive Christianity plus Greek and Roman Paganism." The Protestant Church an effort to Restore Primitive Christianity free of all Paganism.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
The Church was founded in the Roman Empire
Rome was founded ………………………………………………..753 B C
Subdued Italy …………………………………………………343-272 B C
Subdued Carthage …………………………………………….264-146 B C
Subdued Greece and Asia Minor ………………………………215-146 BC
Subdued Spain, Gaul, Briton, Teutons ………………………... 133-31 B C
46 BC-180 AD. Zenith of Rome's glory. Extended from the Atlantic to the Euphrates and from the North Sea to the African Desert. Population about 120,000,000.
THE TWELVE CAESARS
Julius Caesar, 46-44 B C. Lord of the Roman world.
Augustus, 31 BC-14 AD. In his reign CHRIST was born.
Tiberius, 14-37 AD. In his reign Christ was crucified.
Caligula, 37-41 AD. Claudius, 41-54 AD.
Nero, 54-68 A D. Persecuted Christians. Executed Paul.
Galba, 68-69 AD. Otho, Vitellius, 69 AD.
Vespasia, 69-79. Destroyed Jerusalem, Titus, 79-81.
Domitian, 81-96. Persecuted Christians. Banished John.
THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS
Nerva, 96-98 AD.
Trajan, 98-117 AD. One of the best Emperors, but persecuted Christians.
Hadrian, 117-138 AD. Persecuted Christians.
Antoninus Pius, 138-161 AD. The noblest of emperors, the golden age of Rome's glory, but persecuted Christians.
Marcus Aurelius, 161-180 AD. Persecuted Christians.
180-476 AD. DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
192-284 A D. "Barrack Emperors," appointed by the Army. A period of civil war and widespread internal disaster.
Septimius Severus, 193-211 AD. Persecuted Christians.
Caracalla, 211-217. Tolerated Christianity.
Elagabalus, 218-222. Tolerated Christianity.
Alexander Severus, 222-235. Favorable to Christianity.
Maximin, 235-238. Persecuted the Christians.
Phillips, 244-249. Very favorable to Christianity.
Decius, 249-251. Persecuted the Christians furiously.
Valerian, 253-260. Persecuted Christians.
Galienus, 260-268. Favored Christians.
Aurelian, 270-275. Persecuted Christians.
Diocletian, 284-305. Persecuted Christians furiously.
Constantino, 306-37. Became a Christian himself.
Julian, 361-63, the Apostate. Sought to restore Paganism.
Jovian, 363-64. Re-established the Christian Faith.
Theodosius, 378-95. Made Christianity the State Religion.
THE EMPIRE DIVIDED, 395.
West East
Honorius, 395-423. Arcadius, 395-408.
Valentinian III, 423-55. Theodosius II, 408-50.
Western Empire Fell, 476. Anastasius, 491-518.
at hands of the Barbarians, Justinian, 527-65.
ushering in the Dark Ages. Eastern Empire Fell 1453.
Out of the ruins of the Western Empire arose the Papal Empire, and Rome still ruled the world for a 1000 years.
CHURCH HISTORY
2
CHRISTIANIZATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND PAGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH
Rapid Spread of Christianity. Tertullian (160-220) wrote, "We are of yesterday, yet we have filled your empire, your cities, your towns, your islands, your tribes, your camps, castles, palaces, assemblies and senate." By the end of the Imperial Persecutions, 313, Christians numbered about One-Half the population of the Roman Empire.
Conversion of Constantine. In the course of his wars with competitors to establish himself on the throne, on the eve of the battle of Milvain Bridge, just outside Rome, October 27, 312, he saw in the sky, above the setting sun, a vision of the Cross, and above it the words, "In this sign conquer." He decided to fight under the banner of Christ, and he won the battle. This was the turning-point in the history of Christianity,
The Edict of Toleration, 313. By this edict Constantine granted to "Christians and to all others full liberty of following that religion which each may choose," the first edict of its kind in history. He went further; he favored Christians in every way; filled chief offices with them; exempted Christian ministers from taxes and military service; encouraged and helped in building churches; made Christianity the religion of his Court; issued a general exhortation, 325, to all his subjects to embrace Christianity; and because the Roman aristocracy persisted in adhering to their pagan religions, Constantine moved the Capital to Byzantium, and called it Constantinople, "New Rome," capital of the new Christian Empire.
Constantine and the Bible. He ordered, for the churches of Constantinople, 50 Bibles, to be prepared under the direction of Eusebius, on the finest vellum, by skillful artists; and he commissioned two public carriages for their speedy conveyance to the Emperor. It is possible that the Sinaitic and Vatican MSS are of this group.
Constantine and Sunday. He made the Christians' Day of Assembly, Sunday, a Rest Day; forbidding ordinary work; permitting Christian soldiers to attend church services. This rest for one day meant much for slaves.
Christianity becomes the State Religion of the Roman Empire. Though Constantine had in effect made it so, it actually became so under Theodosius (378-95), who made church membership compulsory. This was the WORST CALAMITY that has ever befallen the Church. Christ had designed to conquer by purely spiritual and moral means. Up to the time of Constantine conversion was Voluntary, a genuine change of heart and life. But now forced conversion filled the churches with unregenerate people. The Military spirit of Imperial Rome had entered the Church. The Church changed its nature, became a Political Organization, and took its Nose-Dive into the millenium of Papal Abominations.
Reforms. Slavery, Gladiatorial Fights, Killing of Unwelcome Children, Crucifixion as a form of Execution, were abolished with the Christian-ization of the Empire.
Houses of Worship. The First church building was erected in the reign of Alexander Severus (222-35). After the edict of Constantine they began to be built everywhere.
Downfall of Heathenism. Theodosius (378-95), when he made the Church a State Institution, undertook the forcible suppression of all other religions; prohibited idol-worship. Under his decrees, 375-400, heathen temples were torn down by mobs of Christians, and there was much bloodshed. The Church had now entered its Great Apostasy. It had conquered the Roman Empire; but in reality the Roman Empire had conquered the Church, not by abolishing it, but by making it over into its own image.
The Imperial Church of the 4th and 5th centuries had become an entirely different institution from the persecuted church of the first three centuries. In its ambition to Rule it lost and forgot the spirit of Christ.
Worship, at first very simple, was developed into elaborate, stately, imposing ceremonies having all the outward splendor that had belonged to heathen temples.
Ministers became Priests. The term "priest" was not applied to Christian ministers before 200 A D. It was borrowed from the Jewish system, and from the example of heathen priesthood. Leo I (440-61) prohibited priests from marrying, and Celibacy of priests became a law of the Roman Church. But Celibacy has worked the wrong way. Thru all the centuries the notorious immorality of priests has been one of the standing scandals of the church.
Conversion of the Barbarians. The Goths, Vandals and Huns who overthrew the Roman Empire accepted Christianity; but to a large extent their conversion was nominal; and this further filled the Church with Pagan practices.
Conflicts with Heathen Philosophies. Even as every generation seeks to interpret Christ in terrhs of its own thinking, so, no sooner had Christianity made its appearance than it began its process of amalgamation with Greek and Oriental Philosophies, and there arose many Sects: Gnostics (matter Is evil, Jesus only a phantom, salvation by inner mystic enlightenment), Manichaeism (Persian Dualism), Montanism (continual super-natural ministry of Holy Spirit), Monarchianism (Father, Son and Holy Spirit same person), Arianism (opposed Trinitarian view of God), Appollinarianism (denied human nature of Christ), Nestorianism (two natures in Christ), Eutychianism (Christ's two natures united into one), Monophysites (Christ had only one nature). From the 2nd to the 6th centuries the Church was rent with Controversies over these and similar isms, and almost lost sight of its true mission.
CHURCH HISTORY
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PERSECUTIONS
Nero. In 64 AD occurred the great fire in Rome. The people suspected Nero; and to avert suspicion from himself he accused the Christians, and ordered their punishment. Thousands were put to death in the most cruel ways, among them Paul and possibly Peter. Tacitus says: "Therefore, Nero, to get rid of the rumor, substituted as criminals, and punished with exquisite tortures, those persons, odious for shameful practices, whom the common people call Christians. Christ, the author of that name was punished by the Procurator Pontius Pilate, in the reign of Tiberius; and the deadly superstition, repressed for a while, broke out again, not only in Judea, the original seat of that evil, but thru the city (Rome), whither from every side all things horrible or shameful flow together and come into vogue."
Domitian. 96 A D. Domitran instituted a persecution against Christians on the charge of atheism, that is, perhaps, refusal to participate in emperor worship. It was short, but extremely violent. Many thousands were slain in Rome and Italy, among them Flavius Clemens, a cousin of the Emperor, and his wife, Flavia Domitiila banished. The Apostle John was banished to Patmos.
Trajan, 98-117 AD. One of the best Emperors, but felt he should uphold the laws of the Empire; and Christianity was regarded as an illegal religion, because Christians refused to sacrifice to the Roman gods or take part in Emperor-worship, and the church was regarded as a secret society, which was forbidden. Christians were not sought out, but when accused were punished. Among those who perished in this reign were Simeon, the brother of Jesus, Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified 107 AD, and Ignatius, second Bishop of Antioch, who was taken to Rome and thrown to the wild beasts, 110 AD. Pliny, who was sent by the Emperor to Asia Minor, where Christians had become so numerous that the heathen temples were almost forsaken, sent to punish those who refused to curse Christ and sacrifice to the image of the Emperor,—Pliny wrote to the Emperor Trajan: "They affirmed that the sum of their crime or their error, whichever it was, was this: they used to meet on a stated day before light, and to sing among themselves, in turn, a hymn to Christ, as to a god, and to bind themselves by an oath, not to any wickedness, but that they would never commit theft, or robbery, nor adultery; that they would never break their word; that they would never deny a trust when called to give it up; and after these performances, their way was to separate, and then meet again to partake of ordinary food."
Hadrian, 117-138, persecuted the Christians, but in moderation. Telephorus, pastor of the Roman church, and many others suffered martyrdom. However, in this reign, Christianity made marked progress in numbers, wealth, learning and social influence.
Antoninus Pius, 138-161. This emperor rather favored the Christians-but felt he had to uphold the law; and there were many martyrs, among them Polycarp.
Marcus Aurelius, 161-180. Like Hadrian he regarded the maintenance of the state religion a political necessity; but unlike Hadrian he encouraged persecution of Christians. It was cruel and barbarous, the severest since Nero. Many thousands were beheaded or thrown to wild beasts, among them Justin Martyr. Very ferocious in South Gaul. The tortures of the victims, endured without flinching, almost surpasses belief. Tortured from morning till night, Biandina, a female slave, would only exclaim, "I am a Christian; among us no evil is done."
Septimius Severus, 193-211. This persecution was very severe, but not general. Egypt and North Africa suffered most. In Alexandria "many martyrs were daily burned, crucified or beheaded," among them Leonidas, the father of Origen. In Carthage, Perpetua, a noble lady, and her faithful slave, Felicitas, torn to pieces by wild beasts.
Maximin, 235-238. In this reign many prominent Christian leaders were put to death. Origen escaped by hiding.
Decius, 249-251, resolutely determined to exterminate Christianity. His persecution was coextensive with the Empire, and very violent; multitudes perished under the most cruel tortures, in Rome, North Africa, Egypt, Asia Minor. Cyprian said, "The whole world is devastated."
Valerian, 253-260. More severe than Decius; he aimed at the utter destruction of Christianity. Many leaders were executed, among them Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage.
Diocletian, 284-305. The last Imperial persecution, and the most severe; coextensive with the Empire. For ten years Christians were hunted in cave and forest; they were burned, thrown to wild beasts, put to death by every torture cruelty could devise. It was a resolute, determined, systematic effort to abolish the Christian Name,
THE CATACOMBS OF ROME
Vast subterranean galleries, commonly 8 to 10 ft wide, 4 to 6 ft high, extending for hundreds of miles beneath the city. Used by Christians as places for refuge, worship and burial in the Imperial persecutions. Christian graves are variously estimated at between 2,000,000 and 7,000,000. More than 4000 inscriptions have been found belonging to the period between Tiberius and Constantine.
EARLY INFIDELS
Celsus, 180 AD, most famous early literary opponent of Christianity. No argument advanced since but what can be found in his writings. Many ideas now parading as "modern" are old as Celsus. Porphyry (233-300 AD), also exerted a powerful influence against Christianity.
CHURCH HISTORY
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CHURCH FATHERS
Polycarp. 69-156 AD. Pupil of the Apostle John, Bishop of Smyrna. In the persecution ordered by the Emperor he was arrested and brought before the Governor, and, when offered his freedom if he would curse Christ, he replied, "Eighty and six years have I served Christ and He has done me nothing but good; how then could I curse Him, my Lord and Savior?" He was burned alive.
Ignatius. 67-110 AD. A pupil of John; bishop of Antioch. The Emperor Trajan, on a visit to Antioch, ordered Ignatius to be arrested; himself presided at the trial, and sentenced him to be thrown to the wild beasts at Rome. En route to Rome, he wrote a letter to the Roman Christians begging them not to try to procure his pardon; that he longed for the honor of dying for his Lord; saying, "May the wild beasts be eager to rush upon me. If they be unwilling I will compel them. Come, crowds of wild beasts; come, tearings and manglings, wracking of bones and hacking of limbs; come, cruel tortures of the devil; only let me attain unto Christ." He rejoiced in martyrdom.
Papias. About 70-155 AD. Another pupil of the Apostle John; bishop of Hierapolis, about 100 miles east of Ephesus. He may have known Philip, whom tradition says died in Hierapolis. He wrofe a book, "Explanation of the Lord's Discourses," in which he says he made it a point to inquire of the Elders the exact words of Jesus. He suffered martyrdom at Pergamum, about same time as Polycarp. Polycarp, Ignatius, Papias, form the connecting link between the apostolic age and later.
Justin Martyr. 100-167 AD. Born at Neapolis, ancient Shechem, about the time John died. Studied philosophy. In youth saw a good deal of persecution of Christians. Became a convert. Traveled in a philosopher's robe, seeking to win men to Christ. Wrote a Defense of Christianity addressed to the Emperor. One of the ablest men of his time. Died a martyr at Rome. Showing the growth of Christianitv, he said that already, in his day, "there is no race of men where prayers are not offered up in the name of Jesus."
Here is Justin Martyr's picture of early Christian worship: "On Sunday a meeting is held of all who live in the cities and villages, and a section is read from the Memoirs of the Apostles and the writings of the Prophets, as long as time permits. When the reading is finished, the president, in a discourse, gives the admonition and exhortation to imitate these noble things. After this we all arise and offer a common prayer. At the close of the prayer, as we have before described, bread and wine and thanks for them according to his ability, and the congregation answers, "Amen." Then the consecrated elements are distributed to each one and partaken of, and are carried by the deacons to the houses of the absent. The wealthy and the willing then give contributions according to their freewill; and this collection is deposited with the president, who therewith supplies orphans, widows, prisoners, strangers, and all who are in want."
Iranaeus, 130-200 AD. Brought up in Smyrna. Pupil of Polycarp and Papias, Traveled widely. Became bishop of Lyons, in Gaul. Noted chiefly for his books against the Gnostics. Died a martyr. Here in his reminiscence of Polycarp: "I remember well the place in which the holy Polycarp sat and spoke. I remember the discourses he delivered to the people, and how he described his relations with John, the apostle, and others who had been with the Lord; how he recited the sayings of Christ and the miracles he wrought; how he received his teachings from eye-witnesses who had seen the Word of Life, agreeing in every way with the Scriptures."
Origen. 185-254. The most learned man of the ancient church. A great traveler; and a voluminous writer, employing at times as many as twenty copyists. Two-thirds of the New Testament is quoted in his writings. He lived in Alexandria, where his father Leonidas, suffered martyrdom; later, in Palestine, where he died as a result of imprisonment and torture under Decius.
Tertullian. 160-220, of Carthage; "The father of Latin Christianity"; a Roman lawyer; a pagan; after conversion, became a distinguished defender of Christianity.
Eusebius, 264-340, "Father of Church History"; Bishop of Caesarea at the time of Constantine's conversion; had great influence with Constantine; wrote an "Ecclesiastical History,"—from Christ to the Council of Nicaea.
John Chrysostom, 345-407, "the Golden-mouthed", a matchless orator; greatest preacher of his day; an expository preacher; born at Antioch; became Patriarch of Constantinople; preached to great multitudes, in church of St. Sophia; a reformer, he displeased the king, was banished and died in exile.
Jerome, 340-420, "most learned of the Latin Fathers"; educated at Rome; lived many years at Bethlehem; translated the Bible into the Latin language, called the Vulgate, still the authorized Bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
Augustine. 354-430. Bishop of Hippo, North Africa. The great theologian of the early church. More than any other he molded the doctrines of the church of the Middle Ages. As a young man he was a brilliant scholar, but dissolute. He became a Christian thru the influence of his mother Monica, Ambrose of Milan, and Paul's Epistles.
WRITINGS OF THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS
Epistle of Barnabas (between 70 and 120 AD). Epistle of Clement of Rome to Corinth (95 AD). Seven Letters of Ignatius (110). Epistle of Polycarp to Philippians (110). Teaching of the Twelve (bet. 70 and 165). Shepherd of Hermas (bet. 100 and 140), the "Pilgrim's Progress" of the early church. Fragments of Papias. Tatian's "Diatesseron," a harmony of the Four Gospels (150). Others. These are very interesting because so close to Apostles.
CHURCH HISTORY
5
ECUMENICAL COUNCILS
Nicaea. 325 A D. Condemned Arianism.
Constantinople. 381. Called to settle Apollinarianism.
Ephesus. 431. Called to settle the Nestorian Controversy.
Chalcedon. 451. Called to settle the Eutychian Controversy.
Constantinople. 553. To settle Monophysites Controversy.
Constantinople. 680. Doctrine of Two Wills in Christ.
Nicaea. 787. Sanctioned Image Worship.
Constantinople. 869. Final Schism between East and West.
This was the last Ecumenical. The rest are Roman only.
Rome. 1123. Decided Bishops be appointed by Popes.
Rome. 1139. An effort to heal Schism of East and West.
Rome. 1179. To enforce ecclesiastical discipline.
Rome. 1215. To do the bidding of Innocent III.
Lyons. 1245. To settle quarrel of Pope and Emperor.
Lyons. 1274. A new effort for union of East and West.
Vienne. 1311, Suppressed the Templars.
Constance. 1414-18. To heal Papal Schism. Burned Huss.
Basel. 1431-49. To reform Church.
Rome. 1512-18. Another effort at reform.
Trent. 1545-63. To counteract the Reformation.
Vatican. 1869-70. Declared the Infallibility of the Pope.
MONASTICISM
A reaction against the worldliness of the church, and, in part, perhaps, a by-product of Gnosticism, which taught that matter is evil. The movement started in Egypt with Anthony (250-350 A D) who sold his property, retired to the desert and lived in solitude. Multitudes followed his example. They were called "Anchorites". The idea was to attain everlasting life by escaping from the world and mortifying the flesh in ascetic practices. The movement spread to Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor and Europe. In the East each lived in his own cave or hut or on his pillar. In Europe they lived in communities called Monasteries, dividing their time between work and religious exercises. They became very numerous, and there arose many orders of monks and nuns. The Monasteries of Europe did the best work of the church of the Middle Ages in Christian philanthropy, literature, education and agriculture. But when they grew rich they became grossly immoral, in the Reformation in Protestant countries they soon disappeared, and are dying out in Catholic countries.
THE CRUSADES
The effort of Christendom to regain the Holy Land from the Mohammedans.
There were seven:
First, 1095-1099. Captured Jerusalem.
Second, 1147-1149; postponed the fall of Jerusalem.
Third, 1189-1191; army failed to reach Jerusalem.
Fourth, 1201-1204; captured and plundered Constantinople.
Fifth, 1228-1229; took Jerusalem, but soon lost it.
Sixth, 1248-1254; a failure.
Seventh, 1270-1272; came to naught.
The Crusades, though failures in the object they set out to accomplish, were of influence in saving Europe from the Turks, and also in opening up commercial and intellectual intercourse between Europe and the East, thus paving the way for the Revival of Learning.
MOHAMMEDANISM
Mohammed. Born at Mecca, 570 A D, grandson of Governor, office that would fall to him, but was usurped by another. In youth he visited Syria, came in contact with Christians and Jews, became filled with horror of idolatry. In 610 he declared himself a prophet; was rejected at Mecca; 622 fled to Medina; was received; became a warrior, and began to propagate his faith by the sword; 630 reentered Mecca at the head of an army, destroyed 360 idols and became filled with enthusiasm for the destruction of idolatry. Died 632. His successors were called Caliphs.
Rapid Growth. By 634 Syria was conquered; 637, Jerusalem; 638, Egypt; 640, Persia; 689, N Africa; 711, Spain. Thus within a short time the whole of Western Asia and North Africa, the cradle of Christianity, became Mohammedan. Mohammed appeared at a time when the church had become paganized with the worship of images, relics, martyrs, saints and angels; the gods of Greece had been displaced by the images of Mary and the saints. In a sense Mohammedanism was a revolt against the idolatry of the "Christian world"; a judgment on a corrupt and degenerate church. It itself, however, has proved a worse blight to the nations it conquered. It is a religion of hate; was propagated by the sword; has encouraged slavery, polygamy, and the degradation of womanhood.
Battle of Tours, France, 732 A D, one of the decisive battles of the world. Charles Martel defeated the Moslem army, and saved Europe from Mohammedanism which was sweeping the world like a tidal wave. But for that victory Christianity may have been completely submerged.
The Arabians dominated the Mohammedan world 622-1058. The capita! was moved to Damascus 661 ; to Bagdad in 750, where it remained till 1258. The Golden Age of Mohammedanism was under Haroun-AI-Rashchld, 786-809, contemporaneous with Charlemagne in the West.
The Turks have ruled the Mohammedan world from 1058 to the present time. They were far more intolerant and cruel than the Arabians. Their barbarous treatment of Christians in Palestine led to the Crusades.
The Mongols, from central Asia, arrested Turkish Rule under Genghis Kahn (1206-1227), who, at the head of vast armies, traversed with sword and torch a great part of Asia; 50,000 cities and towns were burned; 5,000,000 people murdered; in Asia Minor 630,000 Christians were butchered; Asia never recovered; the "most terrible scourge that ever afflicted the human race." Under Tamerlane, 1336-1402, a similar hurricane of destruction, route everywhere marked with ruined fields and burned villages and blood. At gate of every city his custom was to build piles of thousands of heads; at Bagdad, 90,000.
The Fall of Constantinople, 1453, to the Turks, brought to an end the Eastern Roman Empire, and jarred Europe with a second threat of Mohammedan control, which, later was stopped by John Sobieski in the battle of Vienna. 1683.